Abstract
With popular discourse increasingly referring to Vladimir Putin’s ‘brand’, this article seeks to apply the conceptual framework of branding to Putin in order to provide a richer interpretation of the composition and significance of Putin’s projected images. By applying the concept of ‘brand personality’ to the existing literature and original source material, this article seeks to provide more comprehensive answers to the ‘what, who, how, and why’. What are the images that Putin is trying to project? Who is he projecting these images to? How are these images projected? And why these images in particular? In doing so, it seeks to move beyond the West’s one-dimensional understanding of Putin as simply a ‘strongman’ to reveal a range of representations that are far more complex and choreographed than often appreciated.
Keywords—Putin, brand personality, discourse analysis, legal-rational legitimacy, strategic communications
About the Author
Matthew Beale is an MA student in International Relations at King’s College London, with a focus on Strategic Communications.
Bibliography
Aaker, Jennifer L., ‘Dimensions of Brand Personality’, Journal of Marketing Research, 34 (1997), 347.
ABC News, ‘Video: Nov. 7, 2001: Putin Remarks on His Public Image’, ABC News [accessed 12 August 2018].
Ackerly, Brooke A., Maria Stern, and Jacqui True, eds., Feminist Methodologies for International Relations, 1st ed. (Cambridge, UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006)
Araújo, Rui, Joaquim J Ferreira, Angelo Antonini, and Bastiaan R Bloem, ‘“Gunslinger’s Gait”: A New Cause of Unilaterally Reduced Arm Swing’, BMJ, 2015.
Archetti, Cristina, Understanding Terrorism in the Age of Global Media (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013).
Berenskoetter, Felix. ‘Identity in International Relations’, in The International Studies Encyclopedia, Robert A. Denemark (ed.), (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010) pp. 3595–611.
Birnbaum, Michael, ‘Putin’s approval ratings hit 89 percent, the highest they’ve ever been’, Washington Post, 24 June 2015.
Bleiker, Roland, ‘The Aesthetic Turn in International Political Theory’, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 30 (2001), 509–33.
Bonicelli, Paul, ‘Putin’s Realpolitik, For The Win’, Foreign Policy, 5 October 2015 [accessed 21 August 2018].
Bozdaglioglu, Yucel, ‘Constructivism and Identity Formation: An Interactive Approach’, Review of International Law and Politics, Vol. 3 Iss. 11 (2007): 121–44
Bremmer, Ian, ‘What the “Tough Guy” Era Means for Global Politics’, Time, 3 May 2018 [accessed 18 June 2018].
Bruen, Brett, ‘Putin Flexes His Brand to the World’, US News & World Report 6 November 2017 [accessed 10 July 2018].
Byrka, Anastasiya, ‘The Aussie Who Taught Putin Body Language’, Moscow Times, 26 November 2013 [accessed 26 November 2018].
Campbell, Adrian, and Elena Denezhkina, ‘From Project Putin to Brand Putin’, Celebrity Studies, 8 (2017), 318–23.
Campbell, David, ‘Horrific Blindness: Images of Death in Contemporary Media’, Journal for Cultural Research, 8 (2004), 55–74.
Campbell, David and Roland Bleiker, ‘Poststructuralism’, in International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity, Tim Dunne, Milja Kurki and Steve Smith (eds), (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2016) pp. 196218.
Cassiday, Julie A. and Emily D. Johnson, ‘Putin, Putiniana and the Question of a Post-Soviet Cult of Personality’, The Slavonic and East European Review Vol. 88 Iss 4 (2010), pp. 681–707.
Channel 4 News, ‘“Hell Yes, I’m Tough Enough” Ed Miliband to Jeremy Paxman | Battle For Number 10’, YouTube, uploaded 27 March 2015 [accessed 24 August 2018].
Chhor, Khatya, ‘Trump, Farage, Le Pen: Why Western Conservatives Love Vladimir Putin’, France 24, 15 November 2016 [accessed 16 December 2018].
Cohn, Carol, ‘Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 12 (1987), 687–718.
Cooper, Andrew F., Hugo Dobson, and Mark Wheeler, ‘Non-Western Celebrity Politics and Diplomacy: Introduction’, Celebrity Studies, 8 (2017), 312–17.
Coyer, Paul, ‘(Un)Holy Alliance: Vladimir Putin, The Russian Orthodox Church And Russian Exceptionalism’, Forbes, 21 May 2015 [accessed 3 August 2018].
Cwalina, Wojciech, and Andrzej Falkowski, ‘Morality and Competence in Shaping the Images of Political Leaders’, Journal of Political Marketing, 15 (2016), 220–39.
Daily Mail, ‘Putin Visits Hospital and Talks to Patients Injured in Mall Fire’, YouTube, uploaded 27 March 2018 [accessed 12 August 2018].
Davies, Gary, and Takir Mian, ‘The Reputation of the Party Leader and of the Party Being Led’, Phil Harris (ed.), European Journal of Marketing, 44 (2010), 331–50.
Dombrowski, Andrew Glenn, ‘Frames within Themselves: Treating Visual Imagery as a Variable in IR’, (Ohio State University: Masters Thesis, 2015).
Dougherty, Jill, ‘How the Media Became One of Putin’s Most Powerful Weapons’, The Atlantic, 30 May 2015 [accessed 17 December 2018].
Ebel, Francesca, ‘Putin’s Image: An Inextricable Part of Russian Life’, Associated Press News, 7 May 2018 [accessed 3 July 2018].
Enli, Gunn Sara, and Eli Skogerbø, ‘PERSONALIZED CAMPAIGNS IN PARTY-CENTRED POLITICS: Twitter and Facebook as Arenas for Political Communication’, Information, Communication & Society, 16 (2013), 757–74.
Enloe, Cynthia, ‘Gender Makes the World Go Round: Where Are the Women?’ in Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics, (University of California Press, 2004), pp. 1–32.
Feklyunina, Valentina, National Images in International Relations: Putin’s Russia and the West, (University of Glasgow: Doctoral Thesis 2009).
Fierke, K. M., ‘Constructivism’ in International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity, Tim Dunne, Milja Kurki and Steve Smith (eds) (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2016) pp. 161–78.
Fisher, Max, ‘The 5 Most Revealing Quotes from Putin’s 60 Minutes Interview’, Vox, 28 September 2015 [accessed 6 August 2018].
Foxall, Andrew, ‘Photographing Vladimir Putin: Masculinity, Nationalism and Visuality in Russian Political Culture’, Geopolitics, 18 (2013), 132–56.
Frye, Timothy, Scott Gehlbach, Kyle L. Marquardt, and Ora John Reuter, ‘Is Putin’s Popularity Real?’, Post-Soviet Affairs, 33 (2017), 1–15.
Gerasimov, Valery, ‘The Value of Science Is in the Foresight: New Challenges Demand Rethinking the Forms and Methods of Carrying out Combat Operations’ (Trans. Robert Coalson), Military-Industrial Kurier, 26 February 2013.
Gorham, Michael S., ‘Putin’s language’ in Putin As Celebrity and Cultural Icon, Helena Goscilo (ed.), (London: Routledge 2012), pp. 82–103.
Goscilo, Helena, ‘Russia’s Ultimate Celebrity: VVP as VIP Objet D’art’ in Putin As Celebrity and Cultural Icon, Helena Goscilo (ed.), (London: Routledge 2012), pp. 6–36.
_____, ‘Putin’s performance of masculinity: The action hero and macho sex-object’ in Putin As Celebrity and Cultural Icon, Helena Goscilo (ed.), (London: Routledge 2012), pp. 180–207.
Goscilo, Helena, ‘Introduction’ in Putin As Celebrity and Cultural Icon, Helena Goscilo (ed.), (London: Routledge 2012), pp. 1–5.
Gronlund, Jay, ‘How Putin’s Brand Inspires Trump’, Biznology, September 2016 [accessed 10 July 2018].
‘Guilty until Proven Innocent: US Rejects Putin’s Joint “Interrogations” Plan to End Russiagate’, RT International [accessed 23 July 2018].
Guzmán, Francisco, and Vicenta Sierra, ‘A Political Candidate’s Brand Image Scale: Are Political Candidates Brands?’, Journal of Brand Management, 17 (2009), 207–17.
Hannity, Sean, ‘Hannity: Why For the First Time I’m “Humiliated” for My Country’, Fox News Insider, 7 March 2014 [accessed 19 August 2018].
Hansen, Lene, Security as Practice: Discourse Analysis and the Bosnian War, The New International Relations (New York: Routledge, 2006)
_____, ‘Theorizing the Image for Security Studies: Visual Securitization and the Muhammad Cartoon Crisis’, European Journal of International Relations, 17 (2011), 51–74.
Haynie, Devon, ‘Russia Has a Global Image Problem’, US News & World Report, 16 August 2017 [accessed 5 June 2018].
Heck, Axel, and Gabi Schlag, ‘Securitizing Images: The Female Body and the War in Afghanistan’, European Journal of International Relations, 19 (2013), 891–913.
Hill, Fiona, ‘Putin: The One-Man Show the West Doesn’t Understand’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 72 (2016), 140–44.
Hill, Fiona, and Clifford G. Gaddy, Mr. Putin: Operative in the Kremlin, Brookings Focus Books (Washington, D.C: Brookings Institution Press, 2013).
Hockett, Jeremy, ‘Brand “W” and the Marketing of an American President: Or, Logos as Logos’, Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture, 2 (2005): 54.
Hutcheson, Derek S., and Bo Petersson, ‘Shortcut to Legitimacy: Popularity in Putin’s Russia’, Europe-Asia Studies, 68 (2016), 1107–26.
Inessa S, ‘I Work so That You Could Be Happy’—Putin, 2016 [accessed 12 August 2018].
_____, ’Putin: I’m Just an Ordinary Person’, 2017 [accessed 12 August 2018].
Ingersoll, Geoffrey, ‘Putin Ditches Car, Security, Takes Long Walk Following Funeral Of Judo Coach’, Business Insider, August 2013 [accessed 12 August 2018].
Kapferer, Jean-Noël, The New Strategic Brand Management: Advanced Insights and Strategic Thinking, 5th ed (London ; Philadelphia: Kogan Page, 2012).
King, Gary, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).
Levada Centre, ‘Approval Ratings of Government Institutions’, 26 September 2017 [accessed 6 August 2018].
_____, ‘Vladimir Putin’s Work’, 12 November 2017 [accessed 6 August 2018].
_____, ‘Terrorist Attacks’, 11 October 2017 [accessed 6 August 2018].
_____, ‘Leaders of Russia’, 28 February 2017 [accessed 6 August 2018].
_____, ‘Putin’s Approval Rating’, 22 October 2018[accessed 6 August 2018].
Lipman, Maria, ‘The Media’ in Putin’s Russia: Past Imperfect, Future Uncertain, Wegren, Stephen K. (ed.), Sixth edition (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2016).
Lukin, Alexander, ‘Russia’s New Authoritarianism and the Post-Soviet Political Ideal’, Post-Soviet Affairs, 25 (2009), 66–92.
Lynn, Bryan, ‘How Leaders Use “Branding” to Improve Image’, VOA, 4 September 2017 [accessed 9 July 2018].
Manor, Ilan, ‘Can National Leaders Influence National Brands?’, USC Center on Public Diplomacy, 1 August 2017 [accessed 8 June 2018].
Marcus, Jonathan, ‘Russia v the West: Is This a New Cold War?’, BBC, 1 April 2018, section Europe [accessed 16 July 2018].
Marland, Alex, ‘What is a political brand?: Justin Trudeau and the theory of political branding’ presented at the 2013 annual meetings of the Canadian Communication Association and the Canadian Political Science Association, University of Victoria, British Columbia, 6 June 2013.
McAllister, Ian, The Personalization of Politics (Oxford University Press, 2007).
McMahon, Tim, ‘Historical Crude Oil Prices (Table)’, InflationData.com, 27 August 2017 [accessed 16 August 2018].
Medveschi, Iulia, and Sandu Frunza, ‘Political Brand, Symbolic Construction and Public Image Communication’, Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies, 17 (2018), 137–52.
Mikhailova, Tatiana, ‘Putin as the Father of the Nation: His Family and Other Animals’ in Putin As Celebrity and Cultural Icon, Helena Goscilo (ed.), (London: Routledge 2012), pp. 65–81.
Molloy, Mark, ‘Deny, Divert and Distract: Russia’s Denials over Spy Poisoning Claims Have a Familiar Ring’, Telegraph, 6 April 2018 [accessed 22 August 2018].
Needham, Catherine, ‘Brand Leaders: Clinton, Blair and the Limitations of the Permanent Campaign’, Political Studies, 53 (2005), 343–61.
Needham, Catherine, and Gareth Smith, ‘Introduction: Political Branding’, Journal of Political Marketing, 14 (2015), 1–6.
News Heist, ‘Vladimir Putin Utterly Destroys BBC Reporter’, YouTube, uploaded 26 December 2016 [accessed 29 August 2018].
Ng, Kate, ‘Nikita Konkin: Boy Who Putin Kissed on the Stomach Speaks about It’, The Independent, 23 January 2016. [accessed 24 August 2018].
Nielsen, Sigge Winther. ‘On Political Brands: A Systematic Review of the Literature’, Journal of Political Marketing, 16 (2017), 118–46.
Novitskaya, Alexandra, ‘Patriotism, Sentiment, and Male Hysteria: Putin’s Masculinity Politics and the Persecution of Non-Heterosexual Russians’, NORMA, 12 (2017), 302–18.
Nye, Joseph S., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics, 1st ed (New York: Public Affairs, 2004).
Oliphant, Roland, ‘Vladimir Putin Admits Stage Managing Animal Stunts’, Telegraph, 13 September 2012, section World [accessed 12 August 2018].
_____, ‘Fifteen Years of Vladimir Putin: In Quotes’, Telegraph, 7 May 2015, section World [accessed 6 August 2018].
Osborn, Andrew, ‘Vladimir Putin Diving Discovery Was Staged, Spokesman Admits’, Telegraph, 5 October 2011, section World [accessed 12 August 2018].
O’Shaughnessy, Nicholas J., Politics and Propaganda: Weapons of Mass Seduction(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004)
_____, ‘Bush, Blair and Hitler? A Review of Comparative Self-Presentation’, Journal of Public Affairs, 8 (2008), 293–302.
_____, Selling Hitler: Propaganda and the Nazi Brand (London: Hurst & Company, 2016).
_____, ‘Putin, Xi, and Hitler—Propaganda and the Paternity of Pseudo Democracy’, Defence Strategic Communications, 2 (2017): 113–35.
_____, Marketing the Third Reich: Persuasion, Packaging and Propaganda, 1st Edition (New York: Routledge, 2018).
Pantykin, Alex, and Style.rbc.ru, ‘A Look at Vladimir Putin’s Wardrobe’, Russia Beyond, 24 June 2015 [accessed 2 August 2018].
Parogni, Ilaria, ‘Anna Arutunyan Explains the Putin Mystique’, NYU Jordan Center, 2014 [accessed 10 July 2018]
Petersson, Bo, ‘Still Embodying the Myth?: Russia’s Recognition as a Great Power and the Sochi Winter Games’, Problems of Post-Communism 61.1 (2014): 30–40.
Porter, Tom, ‘How Do I Love Thee? Newsweek Has Counted the Ways That Trump Loves Putin so You Don’t Have To’, Newsweek, 11 November 2017 [accessed 6 August 2018].
Presidential Press and Information Office, ‘Putin sat at desk’, [accessed 29 August 2018].
Press Association, ‘Nigel Farage: I Admire Vladimir Putin’, Guardian, 31 March 2014, section Politics [accessed 6 August 2018].
‘Putin Likes Your Joke | Vladimir Putin’, Know Your Meme [accessed 21 August 2018].
Putin, Vladimir, ‘Speech at the Inauguration Ceremony’, President of Russia [accessed 10 August 2018].
_____, ‘Address to the Nation at the Presidential Inauguration Ceremony’, President of Russia [accessed 17 December 2018].
_____, ‘Vladimir Putin Inaugurated as President of Russia’, President of Russia [accessed 17 December 2018].
_____, The Putin Interviews: Episode 1, by Oliver Stone, produced by Showtime, 2017 [accessed 3 August 2018].
_____, ‘Vladimir Putin Has Been Sworn in as President of Russia’, President of Russia [accessed 7 August 2018].
Putin, Vladimir, Nataliya Gevorkyan, and Natalya Timakova, First Person: An Astonishingly Frank Self-Portrait by Russia’s President Vladimir Putin (New York: PublicAffairs, 2000) [accessed 8 August 2018].
Rainsford, Sarah, ‘Putin Still in Fashion 15 Years On’, BBC, 27 March 2015, section Europe [accessed 18 June 2018].
Reeves, Peter, Leslie de Chernatony, and Marylyn Carrigan, ‘Building a Political Brand: Ideology or Voter-Driven Strategy’, Journal of Brand Management, 13 (2006): 418–28.
Rogatchevski, Andrei, ‘Putin in Russian Fiction’, Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 24 (2008): 629–56.
Rose, Gillian, Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials, 2nd ed (London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications, 2007).
Rosenberg, Shawn W., Shulamit Kahn, and Thuy Tran, ‘Creating a Political Image: Shaping Appearance and Manipulating the Vote’, Political Behavior, 13 (1991), 345–67.
Roxburgh, Angus, The Strongman: Vladimir Putin and the Struggle for Russia (London: New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012).
RT America, ‘Putin Schools Megyn Kelly on Syria, Chemical Weapons & Terrorism’, YouTube, uploaded 2 June 2017 [accessed 17 August 2018].
RT, ‘A Dog’s Heart: Pet Lover Putin Needs Name for Fluffy Puppy’, YouTube, uploaded 17 November 2010 [accessed 12 August 2018].
_____, ‘Putin Fights Wildfires with Water Bomber’, YouTube, uploaded 11 August 2010 [accessed 12 August 2018]
_____, ‘Putin Puts Foot down in Formula One Car, Speeds up to 240 Km/H’, YouTube, uploaded 7 November 2010 [accessed 12 August 2018].
_____, ‘Putin Shows German Skills, Unexpectedly Steps in as Translator at Forum’, YouTube, uploaded 8 April 2016 [accessed 12 August 2018].
RT International, ‘Putin: The World Is Getting More Chaotic, but We Hope That Common Sense Will Prevail’, YouTube, uploaded 11 April 2018 [accessed 6 August 2018].
_____, ‘Talk of Collusion with Trump “Absurd”—Putin’, RT International, 16 July 2016 [accessed 23 July 2018].
_____, ‘Russians Say Putin, Military Power & Unique Spirit Make Them Glorious Nation’, RT International, 21 May 2018[accessed 6 August 2018].166
_____, ‘Spy Charm? After Interviewing Putin, Fox Host Set off to Vacation in St. Petersburg, Russia’, RT International, 23 July 2018 [accessed 23 July 2018].
_____, ‘From “Say Again” to “War Criminal”: Bizarre Pearls of Anti-Putin Frenzy Sparked by Trump’s Invite’, RT International, 20 July 2018 [accessed 23 July 2018].
_____, ‘Most Russians Approve of Putin’s Performance and Country’s General Direction, Poll Shows’, RT International, 31 July 2018 [accessed 6 August 2018].
_____, ‘Bitter Pill: Putin Says All Pension Reform Options Look Unappealing to Him’, RT International, 20 July 2018 [accessed 23 July 2018].
_____, ‘Time Magazine’s “Creepy” Putin-Trump Cover Is What Media Subversion Really Looks Like’, RT International, 19 July 2018 [accessed 23 July 2018].
_____, ‘Powerful People in US Sell Their Anti-Russian Stance to Their Nation—Putin’, RT International, 19 July 2018 [accessed 23 July 2018].
_____, ‘1“Russian Streets Were Symbol of Friendship during World Cup”— Putin’, RT International 18 July 2018 [accessed 23 July 2018].
_____, ‘ “Don’t Hold US-Russia Ties Hostage to Internal Politics”: 5 Takeaways from Putin’s Fox Interview’, You Tube, uploaded 17 July 2017[accessed 23 July 2018].
Russia Insight, ‘Putin KEEPS HIS PROMISE and Visits Izhevsk Family’s Home as Promised during “Direct Line”’, You Tube, uploaded 20 June 2017 [accessed 12 August 2018].
_____, ‘Putin Ignores Pouring Rain to Lay Wreath on Day of Memory and Sorrow’, You Tube, uploaded 22 June 2017 [accessed 12 August 2018].
_____, ‘I Am Not Made of Sugar—Putin Shrugs off His Badass Downpour Video’, You Tube, uploaded 23 July 2017 [accessed 12 August 2018].
_____, ‘LIKE A BOSS: Putin Humiliates Oligarchs ‘Cockroaches’ For Closing Down a Factory in 2008 Fin Crisis’, You Tube, uploaded 22 April 2017 [accessed 12 August 2018].
_____, ‘OWNED! Putin Owns Macron In Under One Minute—CHECKMATE!’, You Tube, uploaded 28 May 2018 [accessed 12 August 2018].
_____, ‘CLASS ACT: Decorated Veteran Gets Pushed Away By President’s Security: See What Putin Does Next!’, You Tube, uploaded 11 May 2018 [accessed 12 August 2018].
Ryazanova-Clarke, Lara, ‘The discourse of a spectacle at the end of the presidential term’ in Putin As Celebrity and Cultural Icon, Helena Goscilo (ed.), (London: Routledge 2012), pp. 104–32.
Saakashvili, Mikheil, ‘Ex-Georgian President: Mr. Trump, Putin Does Not Bluff but You Have the Upper Hand—Use It’, Fox News, 16 July 2018 [accessed 17 August 2018].
Sakwa, Richard, ‘Putin’s Leadership: Character and Consequences’, Europe-Asia Studies, 60 (2008), 879–97.
Sands, David R., ‘Vladimir Putin Signs Law Banning Internet “libel” of Public Figures’, Washington Times, 24 April 2018 [accessed 12 August 2018].
Scammell, Margaret, ‘Politics and Image: The Conceptual Value of Branding’, Journal of Political Marketing, 14 (2015), 7–18.
Shearlaw, Maeve, ‘Let Putin Be Your Fitness Inspiration Hero’, Guardian, 9 September 2015, section World news [accessed 6 August 2018].
Shestopal, E.B., T.N. Pishcheva, E.M. Gikavyi, and V.A. Zorin, ‘The Image of V.V. Putin in the Consciousness of Russia’s Citizens’, Sociological Research, 43 (2004), 29–56.
Simons, Greg, ‘Stability and Change in Putin’s Political Image During the 2000 and 2012 Presidential Elections: Putin 1.0 and Putin 2.0?’, Journal of Political Marketing, 15 (2016), 149–70.
_____, ‘The Politics of Marketing of Vladimir Putin to Global Audiences’, GEurasia № 5, 26 June 2017 [accessed 16 June 2018].
Smith, Gareth, ‘The 2001 General Election: Factors Influencing the Brand Image of Political Parties and Their Leaders’, Journal of Marketing Management, 17 (2001), 989–1006.
Speed, Richard, Patrick Butler, and Neil Collins, ‘Human Branding in Political Marketing: Applying Contemporary Branding Thought to Political Parties and Their Leaders’, Journal of Political Marketing, 14 (2015), 129–51.
Sky News, ‘Vladimir Putin’s Action Man Persona Is No Mistake—It’s a Carefully-Crafted Image, Says Body Language Expert Peter Collettpic’, Twitter, Uploaded 19 July 2018 [accessed 16 December 2018].
Stengel, Richard, ‘Person of the Year 2007: Choosing Order Before Freedom’, Time, 19 December 2007 [accessed 16 December 2018].
Stoiber, Marc, ‘Putin and the Brand of the Authoritarian Strongman’, Marc Stoiber Brand Strategy, 2018 [accessed 2 August 2018].
Institute of Modern Russia, ‘The Propaganda of the Putin Era | Part One: In Russia’, 13 November 2012 [accessed 10 July 2018].
_______, ‘The Propaganda of the Putin Era |Part Two: The Kremlin’s Tentacles’, 5 December 2012 [accessed 10 July 2018].
Troianovski, Anton, ‘How the Kremlin Crafted a Popular Brand: Putin’, Washington Post, 12 July 2018 [accessed 30 July 2018].
Veroni, Clive, interview by Todd van der Heyden. CTV News, Putin’s Highly Controlled Image Sharply Contrasts the Chaotic Trump Brand, YouTube, uploaded 19 July 2018 [accessed 30 July 2018].
Walker, Shaun, ‘Collection of Vladimir Putin’s Most Notable Speeches Published’, The Guardian, 28 December 2015, section World news [accessed 6 August 2018].
Wastell, David, ‘Putin Admits Regrets over Kursk Crisis’, Telegraph, 9 September 2000, section World [accessed 12 August 2018].
White, Stephen, and Ian McAllister, ‘The Putin Phenomenon’, Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, 24 (2008), 604–28.
Williams, Michael C., ‘Words, Images, Enemies: Securitization and International Politics’, International Studies Quarterly, 47 (2003), 511–31.
Wood, Elizabeth A., ‘Hypermasculinity as a Scenario of Power: VLADIMIR PUTIN’S ICONIC RULE, 1999–2008’, International Feminist Journal of Politics, 18 (2016), 329–50.
Zehfuss, Maja, ‘Constructivism and Identity: A Dangerous Liaison’, European Journal of International Relations, 7 (2001), 315–48.
